Question 1

Why does hollandaise break, and how do I fix it?

Accepted Answer

Hollandaise breaks when the emulsion (the suspension of butter fat in the egg yolk and water mixture) destabilises. This happens for two main reasons: the sauce gets too hot (above 65°C, the egg proteins scramble and can no longer hold the emulsion together) or the butter is added too quickly before the existing emulsion is strong enough to absorb more fat. To fix a broken hollandaise, whisk a fresh egg yolk with a teaspoon of warm water in a clean bowl, then very slowly whisk the broken sauce into the fresh yolk, as if you were making it from scratch. The new yolk provides fresh emulsifier (lecithin) to restabilise the sauce. Prevention is better than cure: keep the bowl over barely simmering water, use a thermometer, and add the butter one tablespoon at a time.

Question 2

What is the difference between stock and broth?

Accepted Answer

The distinction is important and often confused. Stock is made primarily from bones (roasted or raw) simmered for several hours to extract collagen, which converts to gelatin and gives the liquid body. A well-made stock should set to a loose jelly when chilled. Stock is a building block, not a finished product, and is seasoned lightly or not at all. Broth, by contrast, is made from meat (which contributes flavour but little gelatin) and is seasoned as a finished product you can drink from a cup. Most home cooks use the terms interchangeably, but in professional kitchens the distinction matters: a sauce made from a gelatinous stock will coat and cling; one made from broth will be thin and watery.

Question 3

How do I know when duck breast is cooked through?

Accepted Answer

Duck breast is best served medium-rare, at an internal temperature of 57°C at the thickest point. At this temperature the flesh is deep pink, juicy, and tender; the fat is fully rendered and the skin is crisp. Above 65°C the flesh becomes dry and livery. Use an instant-read thermometer inserted horizontally into the thickest part of the breast, avoiding the fat layer. If you don't have a thermometer, press the flesh: medium-rare duck feels like the base of your thumb when your hand is relaxed; well-done feels firm. Always rest duck breast for at least 8 minutes after cooking. The internal temperature will rise 3-4°C as it rests, and the juices will redistribute.

Question 4

Why does my pastry shrink when baking?

Accepted Answer

Pastry shrinks because of gluten. When flour is mixed with water, the proteins (glutenin and gliadin) bond together to form gluten strands. These strands are elastic: they stretch when the pastry is rolled out, and contract when heat sets them during baking. The solution is threefold. First, handle the dough minimally and work quickly to limit gluten development. Second, rest the dough in the fridge for at least 30 minutes (ideally an hour) before rolling, which relaxes the gluten strands so they don't spring back. Third, after lining the tart tin, rest the lined case in the fridge for another 20 minutes before blind baking. Cold pastry holds its shape better in the oven than warm pastry.

Question 5

What is the secret to a perfectly set panna cotta?

Accepted Answer

The secret is using the minimum amount of gelatine needed to set the cream: enough that the panna cotta holds its shape when unmoulded, but not so much that it becomes rubbery. The standard ratio is 2g of platinum-grade leaf gelatine per 250ml of cream. The panna cotta should wobble like set jelly when you shake the mould. If it's firm and doesn't move, you've used too much gelatine. Temperature also matters: the cream must be warm (not boiling) when the gelatine is added, and the panna cotta must be chilled slowly in the fridge rather than rushed in the freezer. Lightly oiling the moulds with a neutral oil makes unmoulding much easier.

Question 6

Why does my risotto turn out stodgy instead of creamy?

Accepted Answer

Stodgy risotto is almost always caused by one of three things: adding all the stock at once (which boils the rice rather than cooking it gradually), using cold stock (which shocks the rice and disrupts the starch release), or overcooking past al dente (which causes the starch to over-gelatinise and become gluey). The correct method is to add hot stock one ladle at a time, stirring constantly and waiting for each addition to be absorbed before adding the next. The final step, mantecatura, is equally important: remove the pan from the heat and vigorously stir in cold butter and Parmesan. This creates the flowing, wave-like consistency (all'onda) that defines a great risotto.

Question 7

Why does my ganache split, and can I fix it?

Accepted Answer

Ganache splits when the emulsion between the cream and the cocoa butter destabilises: the fat separates from the water phase and the ganache looks greasy and grainy. This usually happens because the cream was too hot (above 90°C), the chocolate was too cold, or the ganache was stirred too vigorously. To fix a split ganache, add a tablespoon of warm cream (not boiling) and stir gently from the centre outward in small circles. If that doesn't work, try adding a tablespoon of warm water and stirring again. Water can help re-emulsify the sauce. Prevention: use cream at just below simmering, chop the chocolate finely so it melts quickly, and stir gently.

Question 8

How do I get a really good sear on meat without burning the outside?

Accepted Answer

A good sear requires three things: a dry surface, a hot pan, and patience. Moisture on the surface of meat creates steam, which keeps the surface temperature at 100°C, too low for the Maillard reaction (which requires above 140°C). Pat the meat completely dry with paper towels before searing. The pan should be very hot before the fat is added, and the fat should be shimmering before the meat goes in. Once the meat is in the pan, don't move it. Let it develop a crust before turning. If it sticks, it's not ready to turn; a properly seared piece of meat releases naturally from the pan. Work in batches if necessary, because crowding the pan drops the temperature and causes steaming.

Question 9

Why won't my egg whites whip to stiff peaks?

Accepted Answer

Egg whites fail to whip for two main reasons: fat contamination or old eggs. Even a trace of fat (from egg yolk, an unwashed bowl, or greasy hands) prevents the proteins from forming a stable foam. Use a scrupulously clean, grease-free bowl (glass or stainless steel, not plastic, which can harbour fat residue). Separate the eggs carefully; if any yolk gets into the whites, start again. Older eggs (close to their use-by date) actually whip more easily than very fresh eggs, because the proteins have relaxed slightly. A pinch of cream of tartar added at the beginning stabilises the foam and helps it hold longer. Room-temperature egg whites whip faster and to greater volume than cold ones.

Question 10

How do I stop vegetables from going soggy when sauteing?

Accepted Answer

Soggy vegetables are almost always caused by overcrowding the pan. When too many vegetables are added at once, the pan temperature drops and the vegetables release their moisture, steaming in their own liquid rather than searing. The solution is to cook in batches, giving each piece enough space to make direct contact with the hot pan surface. The pan must be hot before the vegetables go in, and the vegetables must be dry, because moisture on the surface creates steam. For particularly watery vegetables (courgette, mushrooms), salt them 10 minutes before cooking and pat dry to draw out excess moisture. Don't season with salt in the pan until the vegetables have developed colour, as salt draws out moisture.

Question 11

What does 'season to taste' actually mean?

Accepted Answer

It means tasting the dish critically and asking yourself what it needs, not just whether it needs more salt. A dish that tastes flat or muted usually needs salt, but it might also need acid (a squeeze of lemon juice or a splash of vinegar), which brightens and lifts flavours in a completely different way. A dish that tastes harsh or one-dimensional might need fat (a knob of butter, a drizzle of olive oil) to round and carry the flavours. The habit of tasting constantly throughout cooking, not just at the end, is what allows seasoning to be built in layers. At Jackson Laurie School of Recipes, we teach cooks to ask four questions: Does it need salt? Does it need acid? Does it need fat? Does it need more time?

Question 12

Can I substitute salted butter for unsalted in baking?

Accepted Answer

You can, but you should reduce or eliminate any additional salt in the recipe. The problem with salted butter in baking is not the salt itself, it's the inconsistency. Different brands of salted butter contain different amounts of salt (typically 1.5-2% by weight), which makes it difficult to control the seasoning of the final product. Unsalted butter is also generally fresher, because salt acts as a preservative and can mask off-flavours in older butter. For pastry, where the flavour of the butter is prominent, unsalted is strongly preferred. For a cake or biscuit where the butter is one of many flavours, the difference is less critical.

Question 13

Why is resting meat after cooking so important?

Accepted Answer

When meat is cooked, the heat causes the muscle fibres to contract and squeeze moisture toward the centre of the cut. If you cut the meat immediately after cooking, this moisture (which is still under pressure) rushes out onto the cutting board and is lost. Resting allows the muscle fibres to relax and reabsorb the moisture, distributing it evenly throughout the cut. The result is a noticeably juicier piece of meat. As a general rule, rest meat for roughly half the time it was cooked: a duck breast cooked for 15 minutes should rest for 7-8 minutes; a whole roast chicken cooked for an hour should rest for 20-25 minutes. Tent loosely with foil to keep warm without trapping steam, which softens the crust.

Question 14

What is the difference between Arborio, Carnaroli, and Vialone Nano for risotto?

Accepted Answer

All three are Italian short-grain rices with high amylopectin starch content, which is what gives risotto its creaminess. The differences are in texture and forgiveness. Arborio is the most widely available. It has the highest starch release, which makes it very creamy but also the easiest to overcook. Carnaroli has a firmer grain and a slightly lower starch release, giving it a more distinct bite and a wider cooking window. It's the professional kitchen's preferred choice. Vialone Nano is smaller and rounder, with a very high starch release and a particularly creamy result; it's the traditional choice for Venetian risotto. If you can only find Arborio, use it, but watch the cooking time carefully.

Question 15

How do I stop my cake layers from doming in the oven?

Accepted Answer

Cake layers dome because the edges set and stop rising before the centre does, then the centre pushes upward as it continues to expand. There are several ways to minimise this. First, use cake strips (strips of damp cloth or silicone wrapped around the outside of the tin) to insulate the edges and slow their setting, allowing the whole cake to rise more evenly. Second, reduce the oven temperature by 10°C and bake for slightly longer. A lower temperature allows more even heat penetration. Third, don't overmix the batter, which develops gluten and creates a tougher structure that domes more. If the layers do dome, simply level them with a serrated knife before assembling. It takes 30 seconds and produces a much better result.

Question 16

What Florida produce is worth cooking with in winter?

Accepted Answer

Florida's winter growing season (roughly November through March) is genuinely excellent for certain produce. Tomatoes, particularly cherry tomatoes and heirlooms, are at their best, grown in the fields of Immokalee and Homestead. Stone crabs are in season from October through May. Citrus is outstanding: navel oranges, grapefruit, and key limes are all at peak sweetness. Winter squash, sweet potatoes, and leafy greens (kale, collards, arugula) thrive in the cooler temperatures. Stone fruits and berries from local farms begin appearing at markets in late winter. Florida's year-round warmth also means fresh herbs like basil, thyme, and rosemary are available from local growers throughout the year.

Question 17

How do I make a pan sauce after searing meat?

Accepted Answer

A pan sauce turns the browned bits left in the pan after searing (the fond) into a flavourful sauce in minutes. After removing the meat to rest, pour off most of the fat from the pan, leaving about a tablespoon. Add a finely diced shallot and cook for 1 minute. Add a splash of wine, stock, or other liquid and scrape the bottom of the pan with a wooden spoon to dissolve the fond. This is called deglazing. Reduce the liquid by half, then add more stock and reduce again until the sauce coats the back of a spoon. Finish by whisking in a knob of cold butter off the heat (monter au beurre) to give the sauce gloss and richness. Season and serve immediately.

Question 18

Why does my tiramisu come out too wet or too firm?

Accepted Answer

Too wet: the Savoiardi biscuits were over-soaked in the espresso mixture. They should be dipped briefly, 1 to 2 seconds per side, not submerged. They should be moist but still hold their shape. Too firm: too much gelatine was used (some recipes add gelatine to stabilise the mascarpone cream, but the traditional recipe does not), or the egg yolks were not whisked sufficiently. The yolk and sugar mixture must be whisked until very pale, thick, and tripled in volume. This is the foundation of the dessert's lightness. The egg whites must be folded in gently in three additions to preserve the air. A properly made tiramisu should be set but still creamy and yielding when served.

Question 19

What is the difference between baking powder and bicarbonate of soda?

Accepted Answer

Both are chemical leavening agents, but they work differently. Bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) is a base that requires an acid in the recipe to activate: buttermilk, yoghurt, lemon juice, cocoa powder, or brown sugar. When the base meets the acid, carbon dioxide is produced, which causes the batter to rise. Baking powder contains both a base (bicarbonate of soda) and an acid (cream of tartar or sodium aluminium sulphate), so it does not require an acidic ingredient in the recipe. Most modern baking powders are double-acting, producing gas twice: once when wet and once when heated. Using too much of either produces a metallic, soapy taste; using too little results in a dense, flat bake.

Question 20

How do I prevent beef tartare from being unsafe to eat?

Accepted Answer

Beef tartare is a raw preparation, so food safety depends on three things: the quality of the beef, the temperature at which it is handled, and the speed of preparation. Buy beef fillet from a trusted butcher on the day of serving and ask specifically for beef suitable for raw consumption. Keep the beef refrigerated until the last possible moment, and chill your chopping board, knife, and mixing bowl in the freezer for 15 minutes before you begin. Work quickly and serve immediately. The acidic condiments (capers, cornichons, Dijon, Worcestershire) contribute some antimicrobial effect, but they are not a substitute for proper food safety. Do not serve tartare to pregnant women, young children, the elderly, or anyone immunocompromised.

Chef's Notes